A

Abduction
Movement of limb away from the median plane (see M).

Adduction
Movement of limb towards the median plane.
Agonist
is the main muscle or muscle group which is working to perform a specific joint movement.
Antagonist
A muscle or muscle group that counteracts or opposes the contraction of another muscle or muscle group.
Anatomical position
the position of reference in which the subject is in the standing position, with feet together and palms of hands facing forward.
Aponeurosis
A strong fibrous cord is called a tendon; a broad, flattened tendon is called an aponeurosis.
B
Backache
The discs between each vertebra are often subject to immense stress. These discs are made up of an onion resembling structure on the outside and of a nucleus in the middle. These are primarily made up of water, allow the spine to move smoothly and act as shock absorbers when healthy and watertight. The nucleus moves around all the time adapting to the bending forward, backwards, side or rotation of the vertebrae. Unfortunately due to ageing and/or excessive wear and tear the discs may partially loose this property e.g. small cracks in the onion like structure surrounding the nucleus can allow its fluid to escape. This condition is called a herniated or ruptured disc and can compress the nerve roots resulting in chronic backache. There are many other reasons for backache; tired, overworked muscles as a result of bad posture or over loading, Facet irritation within the vertebral structure. Whatever the symptoms it is always important to check with your doctor if you can exercise and to relay any information to your Pilates teacher of movements to avoid.
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Cartilage
The articulating surfaces of bones are covered with a shiny, whitish connective tissue called cartilage .It allows smooth movement of a bone and protects the bone surfaces. When we move joint cartilage be put under two sorts of strains; weight and friction from the joint itself. Even though it is very resilient, cartilage can be damaged either by trauma or excessive wear (for example when the articulating bones do not provide a good fit). Rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis are two common diseases involving damage to bone cartilage.
Coccyx (tail bone)
This strange looking part of the spine is actually two or three fused vertebrae and is the remnant of the tail from ancestral mammals.
Clavicle (collar bone)
Is a very important part of the shoulder girdle which provides a mobile base for movement of the arms. Because of its fragility and role of transmitting forces from the arm to the Thorax (e.g. in falling on an out stretched arm), it is the most frequently broken bone in the body.
Concentric
Involves the muscle developing tension as it shortens and occurs when the muscle develops enough force to overcome the applied resistance. (E.g. bending the arm whilst holding a weight).
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Diaphragm
The diaphragm is the primary muscle of respiration, it divides the thorax from the abdomen .The lower surfaces of the lungs are attached to the upper surface of the diaphragm . By contracting, the diaphragm increases the volume of the lungs and causes air to enter the lungs (inspiration). When the diaphragm relaxes, its dome moves up, the volume of the lungs decreases, and air is expelled (expiration).
Disc
Cushioning between the vertebrae acts as a shock absorber and allows the rotation, flexion, extension, side flexion of the spine.
Dislocation of joints
The articulating surfaces in a joint do not always make a snug fit. Some joints are more stable, and less likely to be injured, than others. In a dislocation or subluxation, a bone is moved from its normal position in a joint because of some trauma. There is associated damage to ligaments etc. Dislocations are most common in finger, thumb and shoulder joints.
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Erector Spine
A group of muscles covering the length of the spine. They keep us upright and are the largest muscle in this area. It is made up of nine muscles. Many muscles of the trunk and spinal column function in moving the spine as well as in aiding respiration.
Extension
A movement in a capital plane, which takes a part of the body backward from the anatomical position.
Eccentric
A muscle contraction that draws its origin and insertion closer. (The curling up of a curl up).
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Flexion
Bending movement that results in a decrease of the angle in a joint by bringing bones together. (Elbow joint in bending hand to shoulder).
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Gluteus
Three muscles make up this group; Minimus, medius, maximus. The one I most often refer to be the medius, whose main action is abduction (see A) of the hip but can also assist in flexion (see F) and extension (see E). The oyster is an example of an exercise where this muscle is specifically targeted.
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Hamstrings
These are a group of three posterior muscles working together to flex the knee and extend the thigh (semimembranosus /semitendinosus /biceps femoris). The hamstrings are poly-articular muscles meaning they cross and act on more than one joint. When hamstrings are too tight this can lead to problems with the spine so stretching and warming are crucial for a healthy back.
Hip
The hip is a ball and socket joint between the pelvis and femur. It is surrounded by thick muscles, and therefore difficult to palpate or localize. Most physical disciplines require good range of movement at the hip. Restrictions of R.O.M (range of movement) here are common, and typically affect nearby structures such as lower back and knee joint. The stability and powerful musculature of this joint are essential for standing, walking, running, etc.
Hyperextension of the knee
The knee can usually extend to 180 degrees or a straight line, although it is not uncommon for some knees to hyper extend up to 10 degrees or more. The ligaments around the knee in the case of hyperextension are subject either to strain or over lengthening causing the joint to be much more vulnerable to injury.
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Iliopsoas muscle
Starts from the lower lumbar spine and threads its way in front of the pelvis down to the top of the femur .It is the only muscle that links the spine to the legs. It is powerful in actions such as raising the legs from the floor while in a supine position .Its main actions are flexion of the hip and external rotation of the femur.
Intercostals muscles
The intercostals muscles occupy the spaces between adjacent ribs. These muscles serve to hold together and preserve the correct shape of the rib cage. They seem to contract during deep, forced inspiration. Often when starting Pilates I hear people remarking on slight aching between the ribs, which I think, is down to the recent expansion of the rib cage during thoracic breathing. Often we breathe superficially in the upper chest never using the full capacity of our lungs contained within the rib cage.
Insertion
Typically a muscle is attached to two different bones .For a given body movement, one bone (origin) is fixed in some way, and the other, called the insertion, moves as a result of muscle contraction.
Isometric
When a muscle strains against some resistance but does not change in length (pushing against a doorframe with both hands), we use the term “isometric contraction”.
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Joints
Joints are areas where bones are linked together. Their mobility varies. There are those with little or no movement and those, which contain a fluid filled cavity between the articulating surfaces. There are six types of joints; Hinge, Ball and socket, Gliding, Ellipsoid, Pivot and Saddle. The articulating surfaces of a joint do not always make a snug fit. Some joints are more stable than others. (For example the ball and socket structure of the hip is deep and snug protected by a multitude of muscles whereas the shoulder joint, again a ball and socket joint, is shallow, looser, less stable and much more susceptible to injury.
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Kinesiology
The science of movement, which includes anatomical and biomechanical aspects of movement.
Knee
The knee, which connects the femur to the tibia, is primarily a hinge joint capable of flexion and extension. It owes its stability not to the articulating surfaces but to the surrounding ligaments and muscles. The knee receives considerable stress, both from above (body weight and gravity) and below(impact from running etc.).Sports related injuries to the knee are common.
Kyphosis
There are several characteristic curvatures of the vertebral column and one of those is the increased convex thoracic curve known as kyphosis. A characteristic hunched look between the shoulder blades is a pretty good indication of this condition.
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Lateral flexion
Movement of the head and/or trunk laterally away from the midline of the body.
Ligament
A type of tough connective tissue that attaches bone to bone to provide static stability to joints.
Linea Alba
A vertical line running from the bottom of your breastbone through the belly button to the pubis. It divides each side of the six-pack muscle (rectus abdominis) and serves as its medial border. It darkens in pregnancy.
Lordosis
Is an increased concave curve of the lumbar and cervical curves. You will often see this condition in gymnasts and dancers.
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Median
The median plane, which divides your body in half.
Menisci
The menisci are C-shaped intra-articular discs made of fibro cartilage. The menisci are slightly mobile and aid in spreading of synovial fluid during movements of the knee.
Monoarticular muscles
A muscle which crosses and affects a single joint is called monoarticular. Biarticular muscles cause and/or control motion at more than one joint. Multiarticular muscles act on three or more joints due to the line of pull between their origin and insertion crossing multiple joints.
Muscles
There are skeletal muscles (also known as voluntary or striated muscles) which attach to bones, smooth muscle (which controls movement of the intestines, blood vessels, glands, etc.) and cardiac muscle (which causes the heart to beat). The skeletal muscles are made up of a multitude of fibers called myosin and actin. They slide in and out of each other during movement. Besides their ability to contract, muscles have a property of elasticity. When stretched, they tend to return to their normal resting length when in a balanced body. When we speak of a certain movement, the muscle, which produces it, is called an agonist, and a muscle, which produces the opposite movement, is called an antagonist.
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Oblique muscles
There are two groups to this muscle, the internal oblique and the external oblique. The fibers of the internal oblique muscle tend to run in various directions depending on their location. Unilateral (one side contracting) contraction of the oblique results in side bending and rotation of the spine and ribcage. Bilateral contraction causes compression of the abdomen and assists in flexion of the trunk. The external oblique unilateral contraction results in side bending and contra-lateral rotation of the spine and ribcage. Again, bilateral contraction causes compression of the abdomen and assists in flexion of the trunk.
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Patella
This is a bone that develops within the tendon of the quadriceps muscle. Its location allows it to serve the quadriceps in a fashion similar to a pulley by creating an improved angle of pull. This results in a greater mechanical advantage when performing knee extensions. It also protects the joint behind, which would be very vulnerable without its kneecap!
Pelvis
The pelvis (the word means “basin”) is a roughly cylindrical structure composed of several articulating or fused bones, associated muscles and ligaments. It receives the weight from the upper body and passes this weight on to the lower limbs via its articulations with the femurs. On the other hand it also absorbs stresses from the lower limbs e.g. in walking/jumping.
Piriformis
This muscle runs from the sacrum to the head of the femur. It is responsible with other muscles for the turning out of the leg.
Pelvic floor muscles
The pelvic floor has two main functions; it acts as a support for the inner organs, and it contains a passage for the urethra, the sex organs, the rectum and for a baby during birth. A good floor is strong and solid; a good passage open and clear. Thus the two tasks of the pelvic floor contain opposites, which can only be resolved with elasticity and adaptability in the tissue. The pelvic floor plays an important role for the coordinated triggering of almost all movements, as well as for balance and good body posture. The male’s pelvic floor is stronger but less flexible than that of a female, whose pelvic floor is weaker but more flexible (necessary for child birth).
Proprioception
Muscles have sensory receptor units in them called “spindles”. These spindles measure muscle length. The muscle tendons also have sensory receptor units called “Golgi tendon organs” which measure the load. So there is a two-way passage of information going backwards and forwards between brain/spinal cord and muscle. This enables the muscular system to function at a very precise and controlled level.
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Quadratus lumborum
this muscle aids in side bending, depression of the twelfth rib and assists the diaphragm in inspiration. The quadratus is often involved when there is an intervertebral disc injury.
Quadriceps muscles
Is a massive muscle having four bodies which all meet up to form a single quadriceps tendon. With its four bodies acting together, the quadriceps extends the knee. It is the strongest muscle in the body.
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Rectus Abdominis muscle
The rectus holds the pubis and ribcage together. A sign of a weak “six pack” is an excessive lumbar curve and a forward tilted pelvis when standing. It loves to dominate in many exercises so one has to learn how to switch it off.
Resistance (in muscle contraction)
When a muscle contracts it tends to draw its origin and insertion points together. Anything that opposes this tendency is called “resistance”.
Respiration
During normal inspiration, contraction of the diaphragm lowers its dome and thereby increases the volume of the thorax and lungs.The increase in volume results in a decrease of pressure inside the lungs which causes air to enter from the outside environment .During expiration the diaphragm simply relaxes (i.e the dome moves upward)and the elastic lung tissue returns to its normal size after being stretched during inspiration.The decrease in lung volume results in an increase in pressure and air is expelled through the nose or mouth.
Rhomboid muscles
The signs of weak rhomboids are complaints of aching and soreness between the shoulder blades and excessive “military posture”(the pulling back of the shoulder blades).This muscles role is to pull the shoulder blade towards the spine (adduct).
Rotation
Movement around the axis of a bone,such as the turning inward ,outward ,downward or upward of a bone.
Rotator cuff muscles
Group of muscles (subscapularis, supraspinatus, infraspinatus and teres minor). These muscles are critical in maintaining dynamic stability of the shoulder joint.
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Sacroiliac joint
The sacrum is located between the two pelvic bones and where they join is called the sacroiliac joint. Strong ligaments unite these bones to form rigid, slightly moveable joints. The bones are large and heavy and mostly covered by thick muscle. Very minimal oscillating type movements can occur in these joints as in walking or hip flexion when lying on ones back. However movements normally involve the whole pelvic girdle and hip joints.
Scoliosis
Lateral curvatures or sideward deviations of the spine.
Sound movement patterns
For each movement there is an "ideal" combination of muscles to make that movement, and they fire up in a certain order or sequence. This is normal movement, the way we used to move as children before we developed bad postural habits and/or suffered injuries.
Stability
Stabilising muscles are engaged around the moving part to create a fixed base from which it can move. For example if you take the image of a crane, it can only move it’s arm/lever if the base is securely anchored to the ground so stabilising the whole structure.
Symphysis pubis
Is where the pelvic bones join at the front. There is a fibro cartilage disc between the two surfaces; this functions as a shock absorber. A fibrous cuff reinforced by four ligaments surrounds the symphysis. Movement at this joint is extremely limited. However during childbirth the ligaments loosen and greater movement of the joint becomes possible.
Synergists
Known as neutralising muscles they serve as guiding muscles which refine movements and stop undesired ones.
Spine
The spine consists of seven cervical vertebrae, twelve thoracic and five lumbar. The sacrum is actually five fused vertebrae followed by the coccyx. There are three curves; cervical curve, thoracic curve and the lumbar curve. The thoracic curve is primary meaning that it existed when we were on all fours; the cervical and lumbar appeared after we started standing.
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Tendons
Serve to attach muscle to bone and are made up of connective tissue.
Tensor fasciae latae
This muscle abducts, flexes and medially rotates the thigh. It starts at the crest of the hip and inserts not on a bone but rather on a band of fibrous tissue, which runs down the outside of the thigh.
Transversus abdominis
Is the deepest of the four abdominal muscles. The fibers of this muscle are essentially horizontal. They end in the front in a broad aponeurosis. Contraction of these circular fibers reduces the diameter of the abdomen. It “pulls in the belly” and can be felt by wrapping your hands around the sides of the abdomen and coughing.